Nanomedicine. 16/25. Essential medicines.
Tuesday, March 6, 2007
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What is Nanomedicine?
The European Science Foundation [European Science Foundation] defines nanomedicine as "the science and technology to diagnose, treat and prevent diseases and traumatic injuries to relieve pain and to preserve and improve human health using the tools molecular, molecular knowledge of the human body ".1 
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Introduction
The term nanotechnology refers to the manipulation of matter at the scale of atoms and molecules, where size is measured in millionths of a millimeter. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter. In the nanometer scale (one to one hundred nanometers [nm]), losmateriales may exhibit very different properties that the same materials of the same composition but of larger scale. Properties talescomo strength, conductivity, color and toxicity may change at the nanoscale, and properties may change within that scale well. By exploiting the nano-scale changes of these characteristics, researchers are trying to create novel materials that have greater functionality.
Nanotechnology is described by some as the "transformative technology of XXI century" .6 Experts predict that nanotechnology will revolutionize the manufacturing industry in all sectors of the industry and eventually "will impact the production of virtually all manufactured objects by humans' .7 The medicine is just one sector that will deeply influenced by materials and nanoscale devices. This report examines the medical applications of drugs, devices and nanotechnology-enabled diagnostic tools and evaluate the role that Nanomedicine will play in resolving or not health-related needs in underserved communities, especially in the global South.
who play the market and
Worldwide, nanotech research and development in all sectors in 2005 was 9 600 million aproximadamente.8 While companies, politicians and the media often cite as the most promising area of nanotechnology research, in fact Nanomedicine has received less funding than other sectors, such as nanoelectronics and nano-materials. According to Lux Research Inc., about 17 percent of all funding for nanotechnology in 2005 to about 1 600 billion, was devoted to "sector of life sciences." (Although "life sciences" is very broad, Lux Research reports that most of the investment in this category relates to nano-enabled medical applications.) 9 
mid-2006, 130 drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology, more than 125 devices or diagnostic tests, are in a state of clinical development, clinical or commercial. In the early days of nanotechnology (2001), the National Science Foundation (NSF for its acronym in English) United States predicted that nanotechnology will help to prolong life, improve quality and expand human physical capabilities " and that by 2010 or 2015 half of all pharmaceutical production, more than 180 billion dollars per year, depend on nanotechnology. More recently, Lux Research estimates that the market for drug delivery systems will grow from 980 nano-enabled billion in 2005 to about 8 600 million in 2010. nanoscale therapeutics (such as nano-silver to cover wounds) accounted for 28 million dollars in 2005 and reach 310 million in 2010. The market for nanotechnology-enabled diagnostics will grow from 56 million in 2005 to more than one billion in 2010.
global nanotechnology funding by sector, 2005 = 9600 million dollars in total Life sciences (including pharmaceutical nano) 1 $ 590 million (17%) Electronics 4 460 million (46% )
Materials 2 740 million (29%) Other $ 780 million (8%) Nanotechnology is an emerging industry, but the drugs and medical devices that enable nano-are already on the market, and more that comes through the pipes of the tiny technology : according NanoBiotech News, the path of nanomedicine and nanoscale devices suddenly grew 68% between 2005 and 2006. By mid 2006, 130 drugs and delivery systems, more than 125 devices or diagnostic tests, are in a state of clinical development, clinical or commercial, 75% of these products are developed in the United States.10 Among the leading field of nanomedicine are also Canada, Australia and Israel (see Table 1). Industry analysts believe that the approval of Abraxane (Nanomedicine a drug to treat breast cancer) by the U.S. FDA in January 2005, is a "watershed" in nanomedicine comercial.11
nanotechnology related to health sciences in 2005, a paltry 8% came from the industria.13
Global Funding for Nanotechnology Region, 2005 = 9600 million dollars in total Asia 3 370 million (35%)
North America 3 960 million (41%) Europe 2 060 million (22%) Global Funding for Nanotechnology Region, 2005 = 9600 million dollars in total Asia 3 370 million (35%)
A speculator capital Risk told NanoBiotech News, "One of the lessons learned from 2005 is that we must be cautious about appearing" nano "when dealing with the FDA. If you have a shell nano gold, it must behave as a colloid gold. If a lipid, must behave as an emulsion. From the regulatory perspective, one should propose a technology that refers to the known. If not, you will have to undertake many more additional evidence ".15 Perhaps with this strategy in mind, many companies have sought not seem prone to the" nano ": Nanopharma Corporation became Nanocure Mersana Therapeutics and changed its name to Avidimer Therapeutics.
Between 2002 and 2007, the U.S. government spent, in general terms, 773 million dollars in research and development of nanotechnology related salud.16 In late 2005, the National Cancer Institute (NCI), part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, awarded $ 26.3 million in grants for the first year of operation in order to establish eight centers of excellence in cancer nanotechnology
(CCNE, for its acronym in English) as part of a draft 144.3 million dollars to five years (for the period 2004-2009), known as the Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer.17 promoted by The Alliance NCI seeks to "harness the power of nanotechnology to radically change the way we diagnose, treat and prevent cancer" .18
Between 2003 and 2008, the sixth research framework program of EU (European Union's Sixth Research Framework Program) to EUR 233.5 million allocated to projects related to nanomedicina.19 The Canadian government invested about 32 billion Canadian dollars in nanomedicine between 2000 and 2006 by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR or, as they are known in English), which in 2003 launched an initiative in regenerative medicine and nanomedicine (Regenerative Medicine and Nanomedicine Initiative) .20 Between 2006 and 2007, CIHR expect to spend about 15 billion Canadian dollars in research and development of Nanomedicine.
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nanoscale engineering nanomedicine. 18/25. Global health as a "great challenge"
Nanotechnology has already changed the way to make some drugs and in some cases, rewritten. When a pharmaceutical compound is formulated as a nanoparticle, increasing their level of bioavailability. In other words, the body can absorb a compound, well made, the quicker and easier, and as such use more effectively, if the compound exists on a scale closer to the scale at which biological processes occur. The level of bioavailability of a drug is an important element to determine its effectiveness. A market research firm estimates to 65 billion dollars annual revenue from the drug market (almost 16 percent of total sales of the pharmaceutical industry) come from drugs that have low bioavailability, which promotes higher costs for patients, treatment ineffective and an increased risk of toxicidad.27
Elan Corporation, headquartered in Dublin, Ireland, has developed a patented process to "grind" pharmaceuticals and produce small particles (typically below 100 nm) that have a greater bioavailability and faster absorption rates, according to reports from the very compañía.28 Elan also asserts that the newly formulated drug Nanomedicine eliminate the "variability fasting / satiety (ie, that matters less if the drug is taken with food). Large pharmaceutical companies like Wyeth, Merck and Abbott and gave their proprietary compounds to Elan for "wheel." In most cases, the drugs and had the U.S. FDA approval in their formulations and larger, and as companies can demonstrate the "bioequivalence" 29-that the difference in the action of the drug from its former and the new wording is "medically insignificant" - the new Nanomedicine version is not subjected to more regulatory scrutiny, as it would if more evidence were asked clínicas.30
baratos.33
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Nanomedicine. 17/25. Malaria Vs
nanotechnology enthusiasts have high hopes that provide especially effective treatments to combat disease and illness. The reason is simple: nanotechnology operates on the same scale biology. A DNA molecule is about 2.5 nm wide and hemoglobin (blood protein that is responsible for transporting oxygen) is about 5 nm in diameter. Human cells are much larger, in the order of 10-20 microns in diameter (10,000 to 20,000 nanometers) - which means that materials and nanoscale devices can easily penetrate in almost all cells without triggering immune response alguna.21
nanotechnology enthusiasts have high hopes that provide especially effective treatments to combat disease and illness. The reason is simple: nanotechnology operates on the same scale biology. A DNA molecule is about 2.5 nm wide and hemoglobin (blood protein that is responsible for transporting oxygen) is about 5 nm in diameter. Human cells are much larger, in the order of 10-20 microns in diameter (10,000 to 20,000 nanometers) - which means that materials and nanoscale devices can easily penetrate in almost all cells without triggering immune response alguna.21
exploit quantum effects addition, some nanoscale materials designed as biomedical applications show unusual properties that increase its functionality. Substances under the range near 100 nm may behave differently than larger particles of the same substance. Nanoscale materials may differ from the versions in force micro or macro, color, elasticity and / or toxicity, may be able to conduct electricity more efficiently or may be more chemically reactive. The optical, electrical or structural that are specific to the nanometer scale are known as "quantum effects." Moreover, the quantum properties of a substance can change in the nanoscale range. Gold Nanoparticles are inert, for example, while other gold nanoparticles of different sizes are reactive.
The form is also important.
is possible that a 20 nm spherical nanoparticles of a specific substance is not toxic to cells, while a 60 nm particle in the form of bar of the same substance, produces a
while a 60 nm particle in the form of bar of the same substance, produces a cytotoxic effect toxic to cells.) Currently there are no models that can predict the quantum effects, so hat the project is to characterize specific nanomaterials -In an attempt to understand their physical attributes, their biological properties in vitro and in vivo compatibility (using animals first) .24 The task of completely apear new world of nanoscale materials is overwhelming, if not impossible, if one takes into account all possible variations of substance, size, shape and surface structure. increase bioavailability
(The words in bold in the text are defined in the glossary) However, not all medical applications of nanotechnology exploit quantum effects. A drug that takes the form of a particle of 400 nm can be more effective than its 2 micron because it has more biological availability *, ie that the body uses it, or it may be able to have direct access to a tumor, for example, and is not likely to exhibit nanoscale properties, unique. In general, only the substances below 100 nm (at least one dimension) can exhibit quantum effects, although there are individual cases, as with polymers that are reinforced with nanoparticles forming links between the two materials, where special properties are displayed in sizes larger than 100 nm.25
latest vision is to combine drugs nano-formulated with a targeted drug delivery based on personalized medicine "approach to health management that is based on considering the patient's genetic profile to discover their individual predispositions to particular diseases or their level of responsiveness to specific drugs. In the future, according to this view, treatment may be nanotechnology-enabled multifunction devices capable of detecting and identifying specific diseases at the cellular level and at the right time, providing the right drug at the right dose, tailoring treatment according to individual patient with information in real time, thereby assessing the state
enfermedad.26 the Letter Of Interest Template Sorority
Nanomedicine. 19/25. Applications.
the improvement of therapy: homo sapiens refined
Can be used nano-scale technologies to combat health?
the improvement of therapy: homo sapiens refined
Can be used nano-scale technologies to combat health?
While governments, industry and scientists, particularly in OECD countries, are quick to highlight the potential contributions of nanotechnology in the remediation of reduced health, are also ready to point out that advances in "converging technologies", nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, neurotechnology and cognitive sciences-will respond to perceived health as less than optimal. Is within the scope of technologies for improving human performance that convergence may have greater impact and higher profits.
Technological convergence will theoretically possible to refine the structure, functioning and capabilities of human brains and bodies. It is not, in this view, simply remove the disabilities or cure disease, but producing bodies stronger, faster, exceeding the performance of more healthy and athletic bodies today, the brain remodeling to retain more information and to communicate directly with computers, artificial limbs or other brains. An example is the implantation of artificial neurons, already approved by the FDA for clinical use, to replace neurons damaged by Parkinson's disease. The device allows you to download updated software, a computer directly to the implant ex vivo in cuerpo.49 For now, these devices are reserved for those suffering from a disease in the near future will be more difficult to distinguish between what constitutes a disease and what merely is a less than optimal health, or to distinguish between therapy and refinement or improvement.
a grand finale, the new refined body created by converging technologies may extend human life span well beyond a century. According to the U.S. government, technologies converging at the nanoscale "improve human performance" in the workplace, in playgrounds, in classrooms and in the battlefields. Downloadable intelligence, memory, downloadable hiperdesempeño bodies that require a revised definition of our species, Homo sapiens. Or maybe the new technological realities we create the need for a new classification for once and for all (Homo sapiens 2.0), which describes the fraction world population that can pay for its refinement by technological convergence. Although relatively few people can afford to pay a full upgrade package, some enhancements, which are possible with the converging technologies will penetrate deeper into society and "naturalize" to that people consider necessary corrections, the same way we now consider the glasses increase. At the same time, there will be a corporate bid to define and expand the range of "health condition" is often treatable, dress up campaigns to "raise awareness the public "- in order to create or expand markets for new refinements available. The practice of promotion to create market conditions to be treated is known as traffic enfermedades.50 Certain personality traits (say, shyness), features (such as strength or height "average"), cognitive features (an intelligence "normal ") are deemed undesirable and correctable (and gradually unacceptable). The line between enhancement and therapy, which is already blurred, will be lost completely. The effect is a shift in the perception of what is "normal" and the creation of what Dr. Gregor Wolbring, biochemical and researcher in health issues at the University of Calgary, called a "capability gap" .51 Just as the digital divide, the skills gap distances mark the boundary between North and South, between rich and poor everywhere.
ethical debate about what it means to be human and how to preserve our humanidad.52
* Magnetic Stimulation transcranial (TMS for short English): This is a procedure that stimulates areas of the brain from the outside, through the use of an electromagnetic field. The TMS can help reveal the roles of active parts (or off) of the brain, but is considered as a potential treatment for brain disorders, including Parkinson's disease or depression.
The use of magnetic fields to stimulate (or off) different parts of the brain has led investigators to discover that the "normal" people can dramatically increase your brain power. A recent study conducted by Professor Allan Snyder at the Centre for the Mind, a joint venture between the Australian National University and the University of Sydney showed that transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporal lobe improved the ability of participants to guess the number of items were shown on a computer screen. The ability subsided one hour after the estimulación.62 Is it much so that workers consume brain stimulation instead of coffee on their breaks? Is something considered brain stimulation needed to maintain a competitive edge in the job? How much brain expansion is enough?
sleep deprivation: They are not intended to help those suffering from insomnia and other sleep disorders. In fact, they are designed to make it sustainable deprivation. The U.S. military at the forefront of research on sleep deprivation and already funded dozens of projects, including studies on the potential use of TMS to reduce the need for dormir.63
* Laser Eye Surgery
: In some cases, is now possible to restore the perfect 20-20 poor vision through corrective surgery. Millions of surgeries are performed every year (for 2005 were calculated as 1.6 million U.S. only) .65 And the number of surgeries is growing, and is expected to continue increasing. Since most people do not feel that prescription glasses are an "upgrade" option, should we consider the potential social impacts of generalized perfect vision (or vision beyond perfect)? The New York Times recently noted that in the past five years, the academy U.S. navy has provided corrective eye surgery, free of charge, to all midshipmen (the eye can benefit from it) .66 Less than 30 percent of the class of 2006 refused to undergo surgery (the number of denials is decreasing every year .) An unintended consequence is that referred to the Naval Academy was unable to meet its share of submarine officers in any of these five years. Traditionally, the submarines are the second most promising option for those items that do not have perfect vision. Aviation-first choice for naval officers, and requiring perfect vision, "is now the most viable option for most. As these and other more extreme improvements become popular among the general population, what we can expect social corners? How will we deal with these impacts had not anticipated?
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delicate side of novelty and mobility of the nano.
The unique properties of nanoscale materials have hope to have effective medical treatments and better diagnosis, including more accurate imaging. Because of its tiny size, nanomaterials may have easy access to areas of the body that are outside the scope of current therapies. Quantum effects showing some nano-optical, electrical or structural rare that only show at the nanometer scale, can increase the functionality of the materials available. The irony is that the qualities that make nanomaterials so attractive to researchers and industry in a wide range of fields-their smallness, their mobility and their unusual properties, "could be the same qualities that could be harmful to human health.
Virtually all scientists agree that the toxicology of nano-engineered materials is largely unknown, and that toxicity data can not be extrapolated from existing toxicology studies were made in scale particles mayores.41 In other words, it is likely that the toxicity of a substance formed by particles of one micron in diameter differs from the toxicity of particles (the same substance) with only 10 nm in diameter (one micron is equivalent to a thousand nm) . This is because the smaller a particle, higher the percentage of atoms that are on the surface. A large surface area corresponds to a high level of reactivity
-and, in general, the more reactive a substance is more toxic it is. However, it is generally true may not remain in the nanometer scale. The behavior of the materials in this range (between ~ 1-100 nm) is unpredictable, and scientists of late suggest that the shape and surface structure of nanoscale materials are also important factors in determining their reactivity and toxicity, making nanoscopic field of toxicology even more crucial.42 This knowledge gap requires urgent attention because there are hundreds of products containing nano-materials and are already on the market, 43 and there is no federal agency in the world to regulate nanomaterials as such. The increased bioavailability associated with nanoscale materials, means that the nano-formulated drug doses should be monitored more carefully, as "pack more energy" than their counterparts in larger scale, an overdose could pose serious problemas.En the same sense, their greater mobility could be a disadvantage.
In advising nanotechnology innovations for the health sector, Frost & Sullivan, an international market research, says, "The nano-particles and nano-materials used in applications related to drug discovery can become a source of concern if you break down too soon or if they remain in the body for prolonged periods. The ability of nanomaterials to interact with biological organisms raises the possibility that they are harmful to humans or the environment ... The current understanding of the potential toxicity of nanoparticles is limited, but research indicates that some of these products may enter the human body and become toxic at the cellular level in various fluids, tissues and / or body organs.
"Particles without borders? Can reach the central nervous system nanoparticles inhale? Can penetrate through layers of the skin of nano-particles of sunscreens and cosmetics? "Cross-brain barrier? How small must be to enter cells? It is unclear how much they can translocate (move side to side) nanoscale particles in the body. It seems that the size, composition and shape of a particle plays a role in this. A recent study showed that spherical particles, some with a diameter of 14 nm and others with 74 nm in diameter, penetrate cells more easily than nanoscale particles into bars measuring 14 x 74 nm.46 spherical particles 50 nm however, are twice as likely to enter the spherical particles slightly higher or slightly menores.47 A study in rats shows that inhaled nanoparticles smaller than 40 nm can reach the brain (specifically the olfactory bulb) via the nerve olfativo.48 This finding is potentially significant for the development of drug delivery methods and nanotoxicology because it suggests that nanoscale particles may be able to circumvent the very tight blood-brain barrier.
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In a memorable article, but not one of a kind, "JB and SM McKinlay in 1977 questioned the contribution of medical interventions in lowering mortality rates in the United States since 1900.34 They concluded that , at most, 3.5 percent of the decline (between 1900 and 1973) could be attributed to medical interventions and presented data that showed that in the case of many infectious diseases (say, tuberculosis, typhoid, measles and scarlet fever), medical interventions were implemented for many decades after that to stabilize a marked decrease in mortality related.
Other previous studies by the McKinley (and other articles will follow) that show that medical interventions had a minimal impact on the reduction of mortality (if we focus on Europe). Although in 1977 the claim that medical interventions had little impact on the decline in mortality rates was considered "modern heresy", the data before and after the McKinleys to prove the point so convincingly that by 2003 the theory of minimal impact and is considered "conventional wisdom" .35 This does not mean it was accepted with enthusiasm or be shared outside of small circles, but it had strong statistical anchors. In general, studies suggest that declines in mortality should be attributed more accurately, to improvements in nutrition and improved hygiene reduced exposure to the agents. almost thirty years ago, the McKinlays understand the profound implications of accepting or rejecting the thesis that the contribution was minimal care to Declines in death rates: If one subscribes to the view that slowly but surely we are eliminating one disease after another due to medical interventions, then there is little commitment to social change and even resistance to rearrange some of the priorities of medical expenses ... If it can be shown convincingly, and based on common ground accepted that most of the declines in mortality unrelated to the activities of medical care, then you can propel a commitment to social change and reorder priorities. 36
's no surprise that the impact of medicine is a contentious issue. Within academic circles connected with the industry begin to surface who challenge the theory of minimal impact. In late 2003, Dr. Frank Lichtenberg, an economist at Columbia Business School in New York, gave a lecture at the center of medical progress of the Manhattan Institute. The institute "makes the intellect into influence" and the center's mission is "to articulate the importance of medical progress, the connection between the institutions of free trade and the possibility that medical progress is available throughout the world" .37
Lichtenberg
reported a study which compared the launch of new drugs and disease-level data in 52 countries between 1982 and 2001 and found that "new drugs increase the longevity of the average person [who suffered from diseases for which designed the new drug] in the order of three weeks per year" .38 The findings made him conclude that the increase in longevity which he attributed to new drugs was well worth the investment they make in society. More recently (March 2006), Lichtenberg collected data on the effect of introducing new laboratory procedures and other medical innovations in the United States between 1990 and 2003. Concluded that "conditions that involve major innovations in the laboratory and outpatient medications produced large increases in age at death, "which supported their hypothesis that" the more medical innovation related to a medical condition, the greater the improvement in the average health of people with this condition "39 (This assumes, of course, that the average person has access to innovation.) Lichtenberg
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the improvement of therapy: homo sapiens refined
Can be used nano-scale technologies to combat health?
While governments, industry and scientists, particularly in OECD countries, are quick to highlight the potential contributions of nanotechnology in the remediation of reduced health, they are also ready to point out that Advances in "converging technologies", nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, neurotechnology and cognitive sciences-will respond to perceived health as less than optimal. It is in the technology field for the improvement of human performance that convergence may have greater impact and higher profits.
is not, in this view, simply remove the disabilities or cure disease, but producing bodies stronger, faster, exceeding the performance of more healthy and athletic bodies today, the brain remodeling to retain more information and to communicate directly with computers, artificial limbs or other brains. An example is the implantation of artificial neurons, already approved by the FDA for clinical use, to replace neurons damaged by Parkinson's disease. The device allows you to download updated software, a computer directly to the implant ex vivo in cuerpo.49 For now, these devices are reserved for those suffering from a disease in the near future will be more difficult to distinguish between what constitutes a disease and what merely is a less than optimal health, or to distinguish between therapy and refinement or improvement.
Every new technology has produced a new group of marginalized people and new inequalities. Faced with the reality of public policy present there is no reason to suppose that this time will be different if the human body becomes the commodified. To the extent that the technology of human performance enhancement is a technology that enables a few, is a technology that disables many ... if we continue as we are, we shall see a new class of outcasts: the non-Doctor actualizados.1 Wolbring Gregor, University of Calgary
As with the digital divide, the gap in capabilities mark over the boundary between North and South, between rich and poor everywhere . For a grand finale, the new refined body created by converging technologies can extend the human life span well beyond a century. According to the U.S. government, technologies converging at the nanoscale "improve human performance" in the workplace, in playgrounds, in classrooms and in the battlefields. Downloadable intelligence, memory, downloadable hiperdesempeño bodies that require a revised definition of our species, Homo sapiens. Or maybe the new technological realities we create the need for a new classification for once and for all (Homo sapiens 2.0), which describes the fraction of the population world can pay for its refinement by technological convergence.
Although relatively few people can afford to pay a full upgrade package, some enhancements, which are possible with the converging technologies will penetrate deeper into society and "naturalize" until people consider them necessary corrections , the same way we now consider the glasses increase. At the same time, there will be a corporate bid to define and expand the range of "health condition" is often treatable, dress up campaigns to "raise public awareness" - to create or expand markets for new refinements available. practice promote diseases to create markets that the deal is called traffic enfermedades.50 Certain personality traits (say, shyness), features (such as strength or height "average"), cognitive features (a intelligence "normal") are deemed undesirable and correctable (and gradually unacceptable). The line between enhancement and therapy, which is already blurred, will be lost completely. The effect is a shift in the perception of what is "normal" and the creation of what Dr. Gregor Wolbring, biochemical and researcher in health issues at the University of Calgary, called a "capability gap" .51 Just as the digital divide, the skills gap distances mark the boundary between North and South, between rich and poor everywhere.
Under current conditions, it is likely that the introduction of technologies for improving human performance or refinement of socially penetrating, have the effect of producing a new group of people marginalized by the "gap" resulting. Some maintain that it is possible to draw a line between therapy and enhancement and that line should be drawn because the distinction will help to take a
For some, this calls for an ethical debate about what it means to be human and how to preserve our humanidad.52 Others argue that given the current configuration of society, can not keep a line dividing therapy improvement and should start a debate that acknowledges the social factors (values \u200b\u200band prejudices, for example) currently contribute to the understanding of what entails being human. Hence the debate, they say, should focus on how, if anything, to protect those who do not currently meet the criteria of the "human"-and those who do not comply with a revised approach in our future refining tecnológicamente.53 Others -the so-called transhumanism, for example, believe that the human species is at an early stage of development, and are comfortable with a malleable definition of Homo sapiens and are looking forward to using available technologies that give them human "best." 54 Can you imagine a world not far from where they discover a "cure" for "medical condition" known as "aging"-perhaps through driving SENS (Strategies for Engineered Negligible senescence), a series of strategies for negligible senescence "- with which humans could live in good health well over a hundred years.55
recognize that the introduction of ubiquitous technologies could improve the widening gap between rich and poor, do not see this as a compelling reason to limit their use. Consider disparities within society as a problem of old, and lies aside, that was not created (or will be resolved) by refining technology and mejoramiento.56
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