Monday, July 9, 2007

Filmy And Smelly Urine

Nanomedicine. 14/25. Disease and poverty in the Global South

"bag of tricks of nanotechnology, with inventing new molecules and manipulating existing course could marvel at its potential to improve health care ... nanotechnology may enable better early warning systems in the diagnosis of cancer and heart disease, cures for progressive diseases like cystic fibrosis, techniques for making implants like artificial hips more effective, even artificial kidneys. " "Barnaby J. Feder, "Doctors Use Nanotechnology to Improve Health Care", New York Times, November 1, 2004

Although nano-enabled medicine may provide benefits, it moves very fast in the absence of public debate to address economic and social impacts of long range.







Executive Summary This report examines the applications medical drugs, devices and nanotechnology-enabled diagnostic tools. What impact will the Nanomedicine in the pharmaceutical industry? Respond "nano-enabled medicine to the health needs of marginalized communities, especially in the global South? What role play? Medical applications of nano-scale technologies have the potential provide powerful new tools to detect, diagnose and treat disease at the molecular level. Nanotechnology enthusiasts argue that Nanomedicine will revolutionize health care.
developments include, for example:
• Nano-sensors that circulate within the body to monitor glucose levels, cholesterol or hormones. • Nano-gold shells are white in cancer cells, and that once identified the tumor cells can be destroyed with a laser is not invasive. • Nano-particles "smart" looking for a specific location within the human body and then accurately deliver a scheduled dose of medication.
• Luminescent Quantum dots that track a particular protein within a living cell.
• Nano-particles of silver to kill germs resistant to antibiotics. • Frames dimensional nano-structured to grow new tissue and organs.
Medical applications of nanotechnology may sound like science fiction, but they are a handful of drug-and nano-enabled devices are already here, and there are many more to come soon through technology of the minuscule. By mid 2006, 130 drugs and delivery systems, more than 125 devices or diagnostic tests, all based on nanotechnology have entered into a development phase preclinical, clinical or commercial.
The market for nano-enabled medicine (including supply of medicines, therapy and diagnostics) will jump from just over a billion dollars in 2005 to nearly ten billion dollars by 2010. Governments, not corporations, are those who take the lead in research and development in nanomedicine.
In the near future, the technologies that are intended to be used in the body-enabled by nanotechnology, erased any distinction between "therapy" and "improvement" and may alter, quite literally, the definition of what it means to be human. The industry and analysts predict that nanotechnology will increase profit margins, expand the range of intellectual property and discourage competition. New medical technologies are irrelevant to the poor if not made available or are unaffordable. Scientific innovation is useless if marginalized people lack access to technologies or existing treatment.
The researchers, funded by public funds and companies innovative nano-biotechnology, have become major players. Big Pharma remains on the margins, but the analysis predicts that will soon enter the game. Although nano-enabled medicine may provide benefits, it moves very fast in the absence of public debate to address economic and social impacts of long range. Some nanoscale products that you intend to use in the human body can be therapeutic, but there are still many unanswered questions regarding the impact of nanotechnology on health and the environment. Products incorporating nano-engineered materials could accidentally enter the body through the environment or food chain.

developments in nanomedicine could result in even healthy people when new nanoscale materials released into the environment can make people sick. No one is sure how to distinguish between benign nano and dangerous products and the emerging field of nanotoxicology is tinged with uncertainty.


technologies converging at the nanoscale (including biotechnology, neurotechnology and information technology) will reach far beyond the tiny devices to deliver drugs or diagnostic reagents at the cellular level, typical for sick people . The convergence technology make it possible, theoretically, alter the structure, function and capabilities of the
bodies and human brains. In the near future, the technologies that are intended to be used in the body-enabled by nanotechnology, erased any distinction between "therapy" and "improvement" and could alter the definition of what it means to be human.
Some argue that nanotechnology will help extend the range of human life far beyond a century ("eliminating premature death") and allow us to transfer information directly a nuestros cerebros. En última instancia, la amplia aceptación de las ecnologías de mejoramiento del desempeño humano —suponiendo que funcionen según su diseño— crearán una brecha basada en las “habilidades”, entre quienes pueden pagarlas y quienes no pueden (o aquéllos que decidan resistirse a ellas).
Se proclama que las tecnologías nanoescalares son las herramientas tecnológicas que nos ayudarán a lograr los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio: los objetivos de Naciones Unidas para promover el desarrollo humano e impulsar la sustentatibilidad social y económica en el Sur global.1 Sin embargo, las innovaciones de la medicina nanológica Northern emerge and are designed primarily for OECD markets.

New nanoscale technology interventions that we now offer our bodies
claim will be stronger, more skilled, more durable. The core interventions that lead to improvements in housing and health, access to clean water and education, for example, may ultimately lead to major improvements in human health-edge medical technologies. But it is not unique. Emphasize medical solutions diverts attention and resources were channeled to non-medical aspects such as health and welfare Community.
drugs and nanotechnology-enabled devices will play a role in ensuring and lavigencia extend monopoly patents covering medicinal compounds and older drugs are not as effective. The industry and analysts predict that nanotechnology will increase profit margins, expand the range of intellectual property and discourage competencia.2 is quite possible that the companies engaged in business "as usual" medical innovations of nanotechnology further concentrate the power of the pharmaceutical industry and are not relevant enough to meet the health needs and poverty of marginalized communities.

The development of nano-enabled medicine (and its potential to meet global health needs) should be considered in a political context and social context. The global health crisis arises not from the absence of a medical technology or a lack of innovation. Despite decades of stunning advances in the ability to save or extend lives through technology, a third of the world's population can not stably access to medicines esenciales.3 There are parts of Africa and Asia this figure rises to more half of the population. According to published reports in 1988 and 2004 by the World Health Organization (WHO), the number of people without access to essential medicines remained fixed during the period of 16 years between the report and report. New medical technologies are irrelevant to the poor if not made available or are unaffordable. Scientific innovation is useless if marginalized people lack access to technologies or existing treatments.
In the current political and social context, a significant investment in research and development of Nanomedicine may not be the right prescription to address human health needs, especially in the global South. History shows that new technologies do not solve the complex problems rooted in social inequities and poverty. Since the beginning of the century, life expectancy fell in 38 countries around the world. Even in North America and Europe, where mortality rates decreased in a stable manner throughout the twentieth century, studies show that these declines were largely independent of medical interventions and should be attributed more correctly, to improve in nutrition and hygiene. The nano-enabled drugs and zeal in promoting the refinement of performance technologies threaten to remove the essential health needs of scarce research funds and development of medicine.
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Monday, June 18, 2007

Side Dish To Go With Deer Meat

Nanomedicine. 15/25. Health needs and scientific innovation.



Defining health.
Is health synonymous with welfare? If they are not equivalent, how do they differ?
There are at least two approaches to health-related thought: this can be understood as the normative functioning of the whole body and, implicitly, the absence of any condition or illness that results in a performance sub-policy in reference to defined as "health care." Those who understand the health of this so do not reject the idea that the terms "social", such as employment subject stress or living in a war zone to take its toll, affecting the health, but the focus and point of intervention is always placed in the body (say, to address the hypertension caused by a high stress job or experienced clinical depression for the victims of the war.) According to the medical model, all sub-normative functioning belongs to a "patient" that is prescribed medical treatment to recover (or attempt to obtain) the regulatory function.
A second more comprehensive approach to understanding health can be described as a model "social", which recognizes that welfare is mental and social health are necessary for physical well-besides the absence of disease or physical. According to the social model is not required that a person is a patient with a sub-body functioning normally suffer from diminished health. A woman who is a victim of sexual discrimination at work can have a body free of physical illness, and yet not considered healthy according to the social model. Since early 1948, the World Health Organization considers the social and mental welfare is necessary components of the health.5
The implications of adopting a model over the other are enormous and are more obvious at points of intervention. For example, using the social model, the possible interventions to help a victim of social injustice (say sex discrimination) to achieve health may include civil litigation, protest, legislative reform, among many others-all action can bring about social and mental well-being if he can change, this would be the optimum, the social structures that led to injustice existed. Of course, from the medical model can cope with the absence of social welfare, "is treating the effects on the body (hypertension, depression and anxiety are among the possibilities) or trying to" cure " the patient's condition related to poor social health. In the medical model, one of the "cures" possible for a paraplegic who is a victim of discrimination and social injustice could be a medical intervention "bionic legs instead of buildings accessible, for example.
The nanoscale technologies we now offer interventions that aim that our bodies will be stronger, more skilled, more durable. Transhumanists, who profess the notion that even the healthiest body can be improved through technology, envision a new way of thinking about health. For them, the human body performs sub-policy-unless that body is "enhanced" with technological refinements. Social welfare may also be important for transhumanist, but performance is achieved by intervening in the body.

One of the obvious difficulties of transhumanist approach is that optimal health status change constantly depending on what the "refining industry" made available in the market. We know of the dizzying pace imposed by the refinements of the software of computers and cyberspace can be isolated if we do not buy the latest escalation. How many of us are ready for Homo sapiens 2.0?
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Tuesday, March 6, 2007

I Want To Shave With Herpes

Nanomedicine. 16/25. Essential medicines.


What is Nanomedicine?
The European Science Foundation [European Science Foundation] defines nanomedicine as "the science and technology to diagnose, treat and prevent diseases and traumatic injuries to relieve pain and to preserve and improve human health using the tools molecular, molecular knowledge of the human body ".1
Broadly speaking, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research defines nanomedicine as the measurement or specialized biomedical intervention -A molecular-scale required to deal with the disease or restore
funciones.1

Introduction
The term nanotechnology refers to the manipulation of matter at the scale of atoms and molecules, where size is measured in millionths of a millimeter. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter. In the nanometer scale (one to one hundred nanometers [nm]), losmateriales may exhibit very different properties that the same materials of the same composition but of larger scale. Properties talescomo strength, conductivity, color and toxicity may change at the nanoscale, and properties may change within that scale well. By exploiting the nano-scale changes of these characteristics, researchers are trying to create novel materials that have greater functionality.

Nanotechnology is described by some as the "transformative technology of XXI century" .6 Experts predict that nanotechnology will revolutionize the manufacturing industry in all sectors of the industry and eventually "will impact the production of virtually all manufactured objects by humans' .7 The medicine is just one sector that will deeply influenced by materials and nanoscale devices. This report examines the medical applications of drugs, devices and nanotechnology-enabled diagnostic tools and evaluate the role that Nanomedicine will play in resolving or not health-related needs in underserved communities, especially in the global South.
who play the market and
Worldwide, nanotech research and development in all sectors in 2005 was 9 600 million aproximadamente.8 While companies, politicians and the media often cite as the most promising area of nanotechnology research, in fact Nanomedicine has received less funding than other sectors, such as nanoelectronics and nano-materials. According to Lux Research Inc., about 17 percent of all funding for nanotechnology in 2005 to about 1 600 billion, was devoted to "sector of life sciences." (Although "life sciences" is very broad, Lux Research reports that most of the investment in this category relates to nano-enabled medical applications.) 9
mid-2006, 130 drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology, more than 125 devices or diagnostic tests, are in a state of clinical development, clinical or commercial. In the early days of nanotechnology (2001), the National Science Foundation (NSF for its acronym in English) United States predicted that nanotechnology will help to prolong life, improve quality and expand human physical capabilities " and that by 2010 or 2015 half of all pharmaceutical production, more than 180 billion dollars per year, depend on nanotechnology. More recently, Lux Research estimates that the market for drug delivery systems will grow from 980 nano-enabled billion in 2005 to about 8 600 million in 2010.
nanoscale therapeutics (such as nano-silver to cover wounds) accounted for 28 million dollars in 2005 and reach 310 million in 2010. The market for nanotechnology-enabled diagnostics will grow from 56 million in 2005 to more than one billion in 2010.
global nanotechnology funding by sector, 2005 = 9600 million dollars in total
Life sciences (including pharmaceutical nano) 1 $ 590 million (17%) Electronics 4 460 million (46% )
Materials 2 740 million (29%) Other $ 780 million (8%)
Nanotechnology is an emerging industry, but the drugs and medical devices that enable nano-are already on the market, and more that comes through the pipes of the tiny technology : according NanoBiotech News, the path of nanomedicine and nanoscale devices suddenly grew 68% between 2005 and 2006. By mid 2006, 130 drugs and delivery systems, more than 125 devices or diagnostic tests, are in a state of clinical development, clinical or commercial, 75% of these products are developed in the United States.10 Among the leading field of nanomedicine are also Canada, Australia and Israel (see Table 1). Industry analysts believe that the approval of Abraxane (Nanomedicine a drug to treat breast cancer) by the U.S. FDA in January 2005, is a "watershed" in nanomedicine comercial.11
According to Lynn Yoffee of NanoBiotech News, "a third (30%) of all products developed as part of collaboration or license agreements with biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies for promotions associated individuals, but companies in nano-biotechnology innovation and academic institutions remain the main promoters of the development of nanotechnology products ".12 It is governments, not corporations, who are leading the way in research and development of Nanomedicine. Of the 1 600 million dollars for research and development
nanotechnology related to health sciences in 2005, a paltry 8% came from the industria.13
Global Funding for Nanotechnology Region, 2005 = 9600 million dollars in total Asia 3 370 million (35%)
North America 3 960 million (41%) Europe 2 060 million (22%)

Although most of the Fortune Five hundred companies cited for investing in research and development of nanotechnology in the field of life sciences major pharmaceutical companies have taken an attitude of watchful waiting, an approach that recalls the early days biotechnology. Large pharmaceutical companies are working with nano-biotechnology innovation, but dadoque nanotechnology is still an unproven technology and uncertain approval process by the FDA, major drug companies have not yet made large inversiones.14

A speculator capital Risk told NanoBiotech News, "One of the lessons learned from 2005 is that we must be cautious about appearing" nano "when dealing with the FDA. If you have a shell nano gold, it must behave as a colloid gold. If a lipid, must behave as an emulsion. From the regulatory perspective, one should propose a technology that refers to the known. If not, you will have to undertake many more additional evidence ".15 Perhaps with this strategy in mind, many companies have sought not seem prone to the" nano ": Nanopharma Corporation became Nanocure Mersana Therapeutics and changed its name to Avidimer Therapeutics.

Between 2002 and 2007, the U.S. government spent, in general terms, 773 million dollars in research and development of nanotechnology related salud.16 In late 2005, the National Cancer Institute (NCI), part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, awarded $ 26.3 million in grants for the first year of operation in order to establish eight centers of excellence in cancer nanotechnology
(CCNE, for its acronym in English) as part of a draft 144.3 million dollars to five years (for the period 2004-2009), known as the Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer.17 promoted by The Alliance NCI seeks to "harness the power of nanotechnology to radically change the way we diagnose, treat and prevent cancer" .18
Between 2003 and 2008, the sixth research framework program of EU (European Union's Sixth Research Framework Program) to EUR 233.5 million allocated to projects related to nanomedicina.19 The Canadian government invested about 32 billion Canadian dollars in nanomedicine between 2000 and 2006 by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR or, as they are known in English), which in 2003 launched an initiative in regenerative medicine and nanomedicine (Regenerative Medicine and Nanomedicine Initiative) .20 Between 2006 and 2007, CIHR expect to spend about 15 billion Canadian dollars in research and development of Nanomedicine.

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Spray Tan After Getting Legs Waxed

nanoscale engineering nanomedicine. 18/25. Global health as a "great challenge"

Nanotechnology has already changed the way to make some drugs and in some cases, rewritten. When a pharmaceutical compound is formulated as a nanoparticle, increasing their level of bioavailability. In other words, the body can absorb a compound, well made, the quicker and easier, and as such use more effectively, if the compound exists on a scale closer to the scale at which biological processes occur. The level of bioavailability of a drug is an important element to determine its effectiveness. A market research firm estimates to 65 billion dollars annual revenue from the drug market (almost 16 percent of total sales of the pharmaceutical industry) come from drugs that have low bioavailability, which promotes higher costs for patients, treatment ineffective and an increased risk of toxicidad.27

Elan Corporation, headquartered in Dublin, Ireland, has developed a patented process to "grind" pharmaceuticals and produce small particles (typically below 100 nm) that have a greater bioavailability and faster absorption rates, according to reports from the very compañía.28 Elan also asserts that the newly formulated drug Nanomedicine eliminate the "variability fasting / satiety (ie, that matters less if the drug is taken with food). Large pharmaceutical companies like Wyeth, Merck and Abbott and gave their proprietary compounds to Elan for "wheel." In most cases, the drugs and had the U.S. FDA approval in their formulations and larger, and as companies can demonstrate the "bioequivalence" 29-that the difference in the action of the drug from its former and the new wording is "medically insignificant" - the new Nanomedicine version is not subjected to more regulatory scrutiny, as it would if more evidence were asked clínicas.30
The pharmaceutical formulations rely on their nano-particles to improve the therapeutic value of "low-performing drugs, but also seeking to improve their profits. It is possible that older drugs that are no longer in the market for its low efficacy or potentially serious adverse effects in certain patient populations may be more effective or safer if reformulated nanoscale, thereby significantly decreasing the cost of the process drug development. Companies pharmaceutical and take advantage of the expansion of patent protection, which is possible through their formulations nano-particuladas.31 Even in cases that can be demonstrated bioequivalence between a drug and its counterpart nanoscale-and become more necessary clinical trials exist in the U.S. a strategic advantage: the possessor of a patent is granted a period of three to five years of "off-patent exclusivity, the drug while undergoing retesting clínicos.32 This period is independent of patent rights and benefits the big drug companies because it keeps in line by the companies that produce generic drugs
baratos.33
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Bright Red Blood In Stool And Cysts On Ovaries

Nanomedicine. 17/25. Malaria Vs



nanotechnology enthusiasts have high hopes that provide especially effective treatments to combat disease and illness. The reason is simple: nanotechnology operates on the same scale biology. A DNA molecule is about 2.5 nm wide and hemoglobin (blood protein that is responsible for transporting oxygen) is about 5 nm in diameter. Human cells are much larger, in the order of 10-20 microns in diameter (10,000 to 20,000 nanometers) - which means that materials and nanoscale devices can easily penetrate in almost all cells without triggering immune response alguna.21

The expectation is that can be designed particles, nanoscale materials and devices that interact with biological materials in a more direct, efficient and even more accurate. And because of its diminutive size will be able to access areas of the body, such as brain cells or individuals, who have been very difficult to achieve with current technologies. For example, the National Cancer Institute U.S. government says that nanotechnology promises "access to the interior of the living cell [which] provides the opportunity for unprecedented benefits to reach new frontiers in basic research and clínica.22 Having the ability to insert probes nanoscale in particular cells increase the understanding of the complex modes of operation of the cells and allow early detection of aberrant cells that point to a state enfermo.23
exploit quantum effects addition, some nanoscale materials designed as biomedical applications show unusual properties that increase its functionality. Substances under the range near 100 nm may behave differently than larger particles of the same substance. Nanoscale materials may differ from the versions in force micro or macro, color, elasticity and / or toxicity, may be able to conduct electricity more efficiently or may be more chemically reactive. The optical, electrical or structural that are specific to the nanometer scale are known as "quantum effects." Moreover, the quantum properties of a substance can change in the nanoscale range. Gold Nanoparticles are inert, for example, while other gold nanoparticles of different sizes are reactive.




The form is also important.
is possible that a 20 nm spherical nanoparticles of a specific substance is not toxic to cells, while a 60 nm particle in the form of bar of the same substance, produces a
while a 60 nm particle in the form of bar of the same substance, produces a cytotoxic effect toxic to cells.) Currently there are no models that can predict the quantum effects, so hat the project is to characterize specific nanomaterials -In an attempt to understand their physical attributes, their biological properties in vitro and in vivo compatibility (using animals first) .24 The task of completely apear new world of nanoscale materials is overwhelming, if not impossible, if one takes into account all possible variations of substance, size, shape and surface structure.



increase bioavailability

(The words in bold in the text are defined in the glossary) However, not all medical applications of nanotechnology exploit quantum effects. A drug that takes the form of a particle of 400 nm can be more effective than its 2 micron because it has more biological availability *, ie that the body uses it, or it may be able to have direct access to a tumor, for example, and is not likely to exhibit nanoscale properties, unique. In general, only the substances below 100 nm (at least one dimension) can exhibit quantum effects, although there are individual cases, as with polymers that are reinforced with nanoparticles forming links between the two materials, where special properties are displayed in sizes larger than 100 nm.25
latest vision is to combine drugs nano-formulated with a targeted drug delivery based on personalized medicine "approach to health management that is based on considering the patient's genetic profile to discover their individual predispositions to particular diseases or their level of responsiveness to specific drugs. In the future, according to this view, treatment may be nanotechnology-enabled multifunction devices capable of detecting and identifying specific diseases at the cellular level and at the right time, providing the right drug at the right dose, tailoring treatment according to individual patient with information in real time, thereby assessing the state
enfermedad.26 the


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Letter Of Interest Template Sorority

Nanomedicine. 19/25. Applications.

the improvement of therapy: homo sapiens refined
Can be used nano-scale technologies to combat health?

While governments, industry and scientists, particularly in OECD countries, are quick to highlight the potential contributions of nanotechnology in the remediation of reduced health, are also ready to point out that advances in "converging technologies", nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, neurotechnology and cognitive sciences-will respond to perceived health as less than optimal. Is within the scope of technologies for improving human performance that convergence may have greater impact and higher profits.
Technological convergence will theoretically possible to refine the structure, functioning and capabilities of human brains and bodies. It is not, in this view, simply remove the disabilities or cure disease, but producing bodies stronger, faster, exceeding the performance of more healthy and athletic bodies today, the brain remodeling to retain more information and to communicate directly with computers, artificial limbs or other brains. An example is the implantation of artificial neurons, already approved by the FDA for clinical use, to replace neurons damaged by Parkinson's disease. The device allows you to download updated software, a computer directly to the implant ex vivo in cuerpo.49 For now, these devices are reserved for those suffering from a disease in the near future will be more difficult to distinguish between what constitutes a disease and what merely is a less than optimal health, or to distinguish between therapy and refinement or improvement.
To
a grand finale, the new refined body created by converging technologies may extend human life span well beyond a century. According to the U.S. government, technologies converging at the nanoscale "improve human performance" in the workplace, in playgrounds, in classrooms and in the battlefields. Downloadable intelligence, memory, downloadable hiperdesempeño bodies that require a revised definition of our species, Homo sapiens. Or maybe the new technological realities we create the need for a new classification for once and for all (Homo sapiens 2.0), which describes the fraction world population that can pay for its refinement by technological convergence.

Although relatively few people can afford to pay a full upgrade package, some enhancements, which are possible with the converging technologies will penetrate deeper into society and "naturalize" to that people consider necessary corrections, the same way we now consider the glasses increase. At the same time, there will be a corporate bid to define and expand the range of "health condition" is often treatable, dress up campaigns to "raise awareness the public "- in order to create or expand markets for new refinements available. The practice of promotion to create market conditions to be treated is known as traffic enfermedades.50 Certain personality traits (say, shyness), features (such as strength or height "average"), cognitive features (an intelligence "normal ") are deemed undesirable and correctable (and gradually unacceptable). The line between enhancement and therapy, which is already blurred, will be lost completely. The effect is a shift in the perception of what is "normal" and the creation of what Dr. Gregor Wolbring, biochemical and researcher in health issues at the University of Calgary, called a "capability gap" .51 Just as the digital divide, the skills gap distances mark the boundary between North and South, between rich and poor everywhere.

Under current conditions, it is likely that the introduction of technologies for improving human performance or refinement of socially penetrating, have the effect of producing a new group of people marginalized by the "gap" resulting. Some maintain that it is possible to draw a line between therapy and enhancement and that line should be drawn because the distinction will help to undertake a
ethical debate about what it means to be human and how to preserve our humanidad.52
Others argue that given the current configuration of society, can not keep a line dividing enhancement therapy and should initiated a debate that acknowledges the social factors (values \u200b\u200band prejudices, for example) currently contribute to the understanding of what it entails to be human. Hence the debate, they say, should focus on how, if anything, to protect those who do not currently meet the criteria of the "human"-and those who do not comply with a revised approach in our future refining tecnológicamente.53 Others-the so-called transhumanism, for example, believe that the human species is at an early stage of development, and are comfortable with a malleable definition of Homo sapiens and are looking forward to using available technologies that give them human "best ".54 imagine a world not far from where they discover a" cure "for" medical condition "known as" aging "-perhaps through driving SENS (Strategies for Engineered Negligible senescence), a series of strategies negligible senescence "- with which humans could live in good health well over a hundred transhumanist years.55 Although some acknowledge that the introduction of ubiquitous technologies could improve the widening gap between rich and poor, do not see this as a compelling reason to limit their use. Consider disparities within society as a problem of old, and lies aside, that was not created (or will be resolved) by refining technology and mejoramiento.56


* Magnetic Stimulation transcranial (TMS for short English): This is a procedure that stimulates areas of the brain from the outside, through the use of an electromagnetic field. The TMS can help reveal the roles of active parts (or off) of the brain, but is considered as a potential treatment for brain disorders, including Parkinson's disease or depression.
The use of magnetic fields to stimulate (or off) different parts of the brain has led investigators to discover that the "normal" people can dramatically increase your brain power. A recent study conducted by Professor Allan Snyder at the Centre for the Mind, a joint venture between the Australian National University and the University of Sydney showed that transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporal lobe improved the ability of participants to guess the number of items were shown on a computer screen. The ability subsided one hour after the estimulación.62 Is it much so that workers consume brain stimulation instead of coffee on their breaks? Is something considered brain stimulation needed to maintain a competitive edge in the job? How much brain expansion is enough?

* Treatments
sleep deprivation: They are not intended to help those suffering from insomnia and other sleep disorders. In fact, they are designed to make it sustainable deprivation. The U.S. military at the forefront of research on sleep deprivation and already funded dozens of projects, including studies on the potential use of TMS to reduce the need for dormir.63


DARPA [abbreviation in English the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency], the U.S. government agency dedicated to advanced research projects on defense, explains his particular interest in enabling sleep deprivation: The success of military operations "depends on the ability of the fighter to work periods of time without adequate sleep ".64 Along with the TMS, is converted sleep deprivation in lifestyle for those seeking a competitive advantage and can afford treatment or medication? And workers, such as bus drivers, will they be forced to undergo "therapy" of sleep deprivation in order to stay tuned for more hours? What are the social (and health) of an army of "undead" private company or a perennially sleep?

* Laser Eye Surgery
: In some cases, is now possible to restore the perfect 20-20 poor vision through corrective surgery. Millions of surgeries are performed every year (for 2005 were calculated as 1.6 million U.S. only) .65 And the number of surgeries is growing, and is expected to continue increasing. Since most people do not feel that prescription glasses are an "upgrade" option, should we consider the potential social impacts of generalized perfect vision (or vision beyond perfect)?

The New York Times recently noted that in the past five years, the academy U.S. navy has provided corrective eye surgery, free of charge, to all midshipmen (the eye can benefit from it) .66 Less than 30 percent of the class of 2006 refused to undergo surgery (the number of denials is decreasing every year .) An unintended consequence is that referred to the Naval Academy was unable to meet its share of submarine officers in any of these five years. Traditionally, the submarines are the second most promising option for those items that do not have perfect vision. Aviation-first choice for naval officers, and requiring perfect vision, "is now the most viable option for most. As these and other more extreme improvements become popular among the general population, what we can expect social corners? How will we deal with these impacts had not anticipated?

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delicate side of novelty and mobility of the nano.
The unique properties of nanoscale materials have hope to have effective medical treatments and better diagnosis, including more accurate imaging. Because of its tiny size, nanomaterials may have easy access to areas of the body that are outside the scope of current therapies. Quantum effects showing some nano-optical, electrical or structural rare that only show at the nanometer scale, can increase the functionality of the materials available. The irony is that the qualities that make nanomaterials so attractive to researchers and industry in a wide range of fields-their smallness, their mobility and their unusual properties, "could be the same qualities that could be harmful to human health.
Virtually all scientists agree that the toxicology of nano-engineered materials is largely unknown, and that toxicity data can not be extrapolated from existing toxicology studies were made in scale particles mayores.41 In other words, it is likely that the toxicity of a substance formed by particles of one micron in diameter differs from the toxicity of particles (the same substance) with only 10 nm in diameter (one micron is equivalent to a thousand nm) . This is because the smaller a particle, higher the percentage of atoms that are on the surface. A large surface area corresponds to a high level of reactivity
-and, in general, the more reactive a substance is more toxic it is. However, it is generally true may not remain in the nanometer scale. The behavior of the materials in this range (between ~ 1-100 nm) is unpredictable, and scientists of late suggest that the shape and surface structure of nanoscale materials are also important factors in determining their reactivity and toxicity, making nanoscopic field of toxicology even more crucial.42

This knowledge gap requires urgent attention because there are hundreds of products containing nano-materials and are already on the market, 43 and there is no federal agency in the world to regulate nanomaterials as such. The increased bioavailability associated with nanoscale materials, means that the nano-formulated drug doses should be monitored more carefully, as "pack more energy" than their counterparts in larger scale, an overdose could pose serious problemas.En the same sense, their greater mobility could be a disadvantage.

access to the brain is especially useful when treat brain cancers, but on the other hand, we should not allow free rein in our bodies all designed nano-particles to which we are exposed through the environment, or through commercial nanoscale products. A recent study suggests that the increase in reactivity shown by the nano-particles of titanium dioxide (TiO2), which are often used as an ingredient in sunscreens, can cause damage to the brain microglia cells whose purpose is to protect the nervous system central.44 Despite the fact that sunscreens and cosmetics designed nano-particles containing commercial, including TiO2 there is no scientific consensus on how much they can penetrate the skin of nano-particles. Even nanoscale materials designed to come into our bodies as drug targeting or imaging agents can create problems if they miss their target and lodge in our cells, brain or other organs.
In advising nanotechnology innovations for the health sector, Frost & Sullivan, an international market research, says, "The nano-particles and nano-materials used in applications related to drug discovery can become a source of concern if you break down too soon or if they remain in the body for prolonged periods. The ability of nanomaterials to interact with biological organisms raises the possibility that they are harmful to humans or the environment ... The current understanding of the potential toxicity of nanoparticles is limited, but research indicates that some of these products may enter the human body and become toxic at the cellular level in various fluids, tissues and / or body organs.

"Particles without borders? Can reach the central nervous system nanoparticles inhale? Can penetrate through layers of the skin of nano-particles of sunscreens and cosmetics? "Cross-brain barrier? How small must be to enter cells? It is unclear how much they can translocate (move side to side) nanoscale particles in the body. It seems that the size, composition and shape of a particle plays a role in this. A recent study showed that spherical particles, some with a diameter of 14 nm and others with 74 nm in diameter, penetrate cells more easily than nanoscale particles into bars measuring 14 x 74 nm.46 spherical particles 50 nm however, are twice as likely to enter the spherical particles slightly higher or slightly menores.47 A study in rats shows that inhaled nanoparticles smaller than 40 nm can reach the brain (specifically the olfactory bulb) via the nerve olfativo.48 This finding is potentially significant for the development of drug delivery methods and nanotoxicology because it suggests that nanoscale particles may be able to circumvent the very tight blood-brain barrier.
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In a memorable article, but not one of a kind, "JB and SM McKinlay in 1977 questioned the contribution of medical interventions in lowering mortality rates in the United States since 1900.34 They concluded that , at most, 3.5 percent of the decline (between 1900 and 1973) could be attributed to medical interventions and presented data that showed that in the case of many infectious diseases (say, tuberculosis, typhoid, measles and scarlet fever), medical interventions were implemented for many decades after that to stabilize a marked decrease in mortality related.
Other previous studies by the McKinley (and other articles will follow) that show that medical interventions had a minimal impact on the reduction of mortality (if we focus on Europe). Although in 1977 the claim that medical interventions had little impact on the decline in mortality rates was considered "modern heresy", the data before and after the McKinleys to prove the point so convincingly that by 2003 the theory of minimal impact and is considered "conventional wisdom" .35 This does not mean it was accepted with enthusiasm or be shared outside of small circles, but it had strong statistical anchors. In general, studies suggest that declines in mortality should be attributed more accurately, to improvements in nutrition and improved hygiene reduced exposure to the agents. almost thirty years ago, the McKinlays understand the profound implications of accepting or rejecting the thesis that the contribution was minimal care to Declines in death rates: If one subscribes to the view that slowly but surely we are eliminating one disease after another due to medical interventions, then there is little commitment to social change and even resistance to rearrange some of the priorities of medical expenses ... If it can be shown convincingly, and based on common ground accepted that most of the declines in mortality unrelated to the activities of medical care, then you can propel a commitment to social change and reorder priorities. 36
's no surprise that the impact of medicine is a contentious issue. Within academic circles connected with the industry begin to surface who challenge the theory of minimal impact. In late 2003, Dr. Frank Lichtenberg, an economist at Columbia Business School in New York, gave a lecture at the center of medical progress of the Manhattan Institute. The institute "makes the intellect into influence" and the center's mission is "to articulate the importance of medical progress, the connection between the institutions of free trade and the possibility that medical progress is available throughout the world" .37
Lichtenberg
reported a study which compared the launch of new drugs and disease-level data in 52 countries between 1982 and 2001 and found that "new drugs increase the longevity of the average person [who suffered from diseases for which designed the new drug] in the order of three weeks per year" .38 The findings made him conclude that the increase in longevity which he attributed to new drugs was well worth the investment they make in society. More recently (March 2006), Lichtenberg collected data on the effect of introducing new laboratory procedures and other medical innovations in the United States between 1990 and 2003. Concluded that "conditions that involve major innovations in the laboratory and outpatient medications produced large increases in age at death, "which supported their hypothesis that" the more medical innovation related to a medical condition, the greater the improvement in the average health of people with this condition "39 (This assumes, of course, that the average person has access to innovation.)
Should we conclude from previous studies and the recent work of Lichtenberg that medical interventions began to have an impact on improving health, only in the last two decades twentieth century? If so, how do we explain the sudden change? Far more than an academic exercise to determine precisely what we get from investing in new medical interventions should have a major impact on public policy as we help set spending priorities, including priorities for research and technological development. The U.S. National Institutes of Health, for example, must decide how to divide the best over 28 billion dollars annually in taxes. But how to ensure that planners have access to data and analysis as selfless as possible. For example, Lichtenberg has among its sources of funding to pharmaceutical giants like Pfizer and Merck and has consulted the National Pharmaceutical Council.40 Can be served, naively, to the interests of the medical industry? Planners and general lasociedad must find ways to achieve a full understanding of the historical impacts of medical technologies, and potential impacts of the technologies under development.
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Surrender Of Policy Bima Gold



the improvement of therapy: homo sapiens refined


Can be used nano-scale technologies to combat health?
While governments, industry and scientists, particularly in OECD countries, are quick to highlight the potential contributions of nanotechnology in the remediation of reduced health, they are also ready to point out that Advances in "converging technologies", nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, neurotechnology and cognitive sciences-will respond to perceived health as less than optimal. It is in the technology field for the improvement of human performance that convergence may have greater impact and higher profits.
Technological convergence will theoretically possible to refine the structure, functioning and capabilities of human brains and bodies.


is not, in this view, simply remove the disabilities or cure disease, but producing bodies stronger, faster, exceeding the performance of more healthy and athletic bodies today, the brain remodeling to retain more information and to communicate directly with computers, artificial limbs or other brains. An example is the implantation of artificial neurons, already approved by the FDA for clinical use, to replace neurons damaged by Parkinson's disease. The device allows you to download updated software, a computer directly to the implant ex vivo in cuerpo.49 For now, these devices are reserved for those suffering from a disease in the near future will be more difficult to distinguish between what constitutes a disease and what merely is a less than optimal health, or to distinguish between therapy and refinement or improvement.
Every new technology has produced a new group of marginalized people and new inequalities. Faced with the reality of public policy present there is no reason to suppose that this time will be different if the human body becomes the commodified. To the extent that the technology of human performance enhancement is a technology that enables a few, is a technology that disables many ... if we continue as we are, we shall see a new class of outcasts: the non-Doctor actualizados.1 Wolbring Gregor, University of Calgary
As with the digital divide, the gap in capabilities mark over the boundary between North and South, between rich and poor everywhere . For a grand finale, the new refined body created by converging technologies can extend the human life span well beyond a century. According to the U.S. government, technologies converging at the nanoscale "improve human performance" in the workplace, in playgrounds, in classrooms and in the battlefields. Downloadable intelligence, memory, downloadable hiperdesempeño bodies that require a revised definition of our species, Homo sapiens. Or maybe the new technological realities we create the need for a new classification for once and for all (Homo sapiens 2.0), which describes the fraction of the population world can pay for its refinement by technological convergence.
Although relatively few people can afford to pay a full upgrade package, some enhancements, which are possible with the converging technologies will penetrate deeper into society and "naturalize" until people consider them necessary corrections , the same way we now consider the glasses increase. At the same time, there will be a corporate bid to define and expand the range of "health condition" is often treatable, dress up campaigns to "raise public awareness" - to create or expand markets for new refinements available. practice promote diseases to create markets that the deal is called traffic enfermedades.50 Certain personality traits (say, shyness), features (such as strength or height "average"), cognitive features (a intelligence "normal") are deemed undesirable and correctable (and gradually unacceptable). The line between enhancement and therapy, which is already blurred, will be lost completely. The effect is a shift in the perception of what is "normal" and the creation of what Dr. Gregor Wolbring, biochemical and researcher in health issues at the University of Calgary, called a "capability gap" .51 Just as the digital divide, the skills gap distances mark the boundary between North and South, between rich and poor everywhere.

Under current conditions, it is likely that the introduction of technologies for improving human performance or refinement of socially penetrating, have the effect of producing a new group of people marginalized by the "gap" resulting. Some maintain that it is possible to draw a line between therapy and enhancement and that line should be drawn because the distinction will help to take a
Unfortunately, growth hormone is not the only case in which a performance improvement technology, when administered in the absence of disease, make up a population "affected" was once considered healthy.

For some, this calls for an ethical debate about what it means to be human and how to preserve our humanidad.52 Others argue that given the current configuration of society, can not keep a line dividing therapy improvement and should start a debate that acknowledges the social factors (values \u200b\u200band prejudices, for example) currently contribute to the understanding of what entails being human. Hence the debate, they say, should focus on how, if anything, to protect those who do not currently meet the criteria of the "human"-and those who do not comply with a revised approach in our future refining tecnológicamente.53 Others -the so-called transhumanism, for example, believe that the human species is at an early stage of development, and are comfortable with a malleable definition of Homo sapiens and are looking forward to using available technologies that give them human "best." 54 Can you imagine a world not far from where they discover a "cure" for "medical condition" known as "aging"-perhaps through driving SENS (Strategies for Engineered Negligible senescence), a series of strategies for negligible senescence "- with which humans could live in good health well over a hundred years.55
Although some transhumanist

recognize that the introduction of ubiquitous technologies could improve the widening gap between rich and poor, do not see this as a compelling reason to limit their use. Consider disparities within society as a problem of old, and lies aside, that was not created (or will be resolved) by refining technology and mejoramiento.56

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Friday, February 23, 2007

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An essay on the mill of refinement, can we take off?
Most of the improvements would be beneficial for a society desperate for cures or treatments that benefit the population identified as sick or disabled. " Some few of these improvements are developed for particular populations 'healthy', who have specialized requirements, such as soldiers in combat. Although improvements are intended ostensibly limited consumption, the trend is that its use will increase dramatically after its introduction, and soon goes beyond the population that justified in the first instance, their development.

When this happens, there are consequences that actually exist that the company had not fully anticipated. For example, human growth hormone, genetically engineered, won approval from the FDA in 1985 to address the "dwarf"-a condition characterized by abnormally short stature often caused by a genetic mutation espontánea.57 Today , human growth hormone is prescribed (and the FDA approved) for healthy children whose parents are deemed to small. His children, say the experts, suffering from "idiopathic short stature", which means that no signs of disease are simply unacceptably short stature. Growth hormone are now more widely athletes seeking a refinement of their performance. Growth hormone is promoted strongly arguing that it is fighting properties envejecimiento.58 "Treatment" is not cheap, growth hormone can cost $ 20 000 per year and is prescribed often for four or five years. 59 It is estimated that the global market will reach U.S. $ 2 billion anuales.60


is problematic expand the use of growth hormone among healthy populations. Says Dr. Michael FreeMarker in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, "The term 'idiopathic short stature" with the implication of disease [but] the main problem of short stature is the susceptibility to discrimination. But discrimination is a "disease" of society, not the individual child. In theory, social intolerance must be addressed through the enactment and entry into effect of anti-discrimination laws, through re-educate the public and by consulting with the family, not by medication of the child ".61 FreeMarker

goes further and shows that the introduction of improvements may alter the social perception of what is abnormal and / or acceptable. And he says: "In the absence of disease, there is no reason to define a treatment threshold. For example, how to justify the treatment of a child whose growth horizon is of 1.60 meters, and not that of another child whose maximum height of 1.61? The most serious is that the use of GH [growth hormone] in very short children can create an endless cycle of new setbacks, the increases in the high end of very short stature children involve the reclassification of many children previously normal (low stature but high horizons that exceed these thresholds), which will be labeled as "idiopathic low." This may be a circumstance in which the treatment of a group of children create a state of "illness" in a group previously "healthy". " [Emphasis added.]
Unfortunately, growth hormone is not the only case in which technology performance improvements, when administered in the absence of disease, create a population "affected" was once considered healthy. Consider the following examples:
* Gene Therapy * Update height

memory * Improved visual cognitive Implant
* * Extension of the horizon of life
* Insert gene happiness charm
* Training in partnership * Implant gene for the assessment of broccoli
* transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS its acronym in English): This is a procedure that stimulates areas of the brain from the outside, through the use of an electromagnetic field. The TMS can help reveal the roles of active parts (or off) of the brain, but is considered as a potential treatment for brain disorders, including Parkinson's disease or depression.
Use magnetic fields to stimulate (or off) different parts of the brain has led investigators to discover that the "normal" people can dramatically increase your brain power 25. A recent study conducted by Professor Allan Snyder at the Centre for the Mind, a joint venture between the Australian National University and the University of Sydney showed that transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporal lobe improve the ability of participants to guess the number elements that were shown on a computer screen. The ability subsided one hour after the estimulación.62
Is it much so that workers consume brain stimulation instead of coffee on their breaks? Is something considered brain stimulation needed to maintain a competitive edge in the job? How much brain expansion is enough? * Treatment of sleep deprivation: They are not intended to help those suffering from insomnia and other sleep disorders. In fact, they are designed to make it sustainable deprivation. The U.S. military at the forefront of research on sleep deprivation and already funded dozens of projects, including studies on the potential use of TMS to reduce the need for DARPA

dormir.63 [abbreviation in English of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency], the U.S. government agency dedicated to advanced research projects on defense, explains his particular interest to make possible sleep deprivation: The success of military operations "depends on the ability of the fighter to operate for long periods of time without adequate sleep" .64
Along with the TMS, is converted sleep deprivation in lifestyle for those seeking a competitive advantage and can afford treatment or medication? And the workers, such as bus drivers, will they be forced to undergo "therapy" of sleep deprivation in order to stay tuned for more hours? What are the social (and health) of an army of "undead" private company or a perennially sleep?
* Laser Eye Surgery: In some cases, it is now possible to restore the perfect 20-20 poor vision through corrective surgery. Millions of surgeries are performed every year (for 2005 were calculated as 1.6 million U.S. only) .65 And the number of surgeries is growing, and is expected to continue increasing. Since that most people do not feel that prescription glasses are an "upgrade" option, should we consider the potential social impacts of generalized perfect vision (or vision beyond perfect)?
The New York Times recently noted that in the past five years, the U.S. Naval Academy has provided corrective eye surgery, free of charge, to all midshipmen (the eye can benefit from it) .66 Less than 30 percent of the class of 2006 refused to undergo surgery (the number of denials is shrinking every year.) An unintended consequence is that referred to the Naval Academy could not meet its share of submarine officers in any of these five years.
Traditionally, submarines are the second most promising option for those items that do not have perfect vision. Aviation-first choice for naval officers, and requiring perfect vision, "is now the most viable option for most. As these and other improvements more extreme become popular among the general population, social turns what can we expect? How will we deal with these impacts had not anticipated?


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BANG: What does nano convergence. Will it lead that humans best? 101



Some of us are used to take pictures, send to a friend, search the Google-all on our cell phones, or phones. But this ethos "all-in-one" goes beyond the field of communications and information technology. At least five years ago we heard that there are plans to retrofit high-level practice of science and technology through technological convergence, and it will be possible by nanotech advances. The ultimate goal is to intervene in all macro-level phenomena including social, biological and environmental-control to achieve nanoscale phenomena.
The search for a "core technology" that gives humans control over nature is not new. Its roots go back at least to the New Atlantis, Francis Bacon (published in 1627), 102 in which he describes a utopia on a fantastic island, Bensalem, where possible, for example "do for art ... trees and flowers that are up or slow down their own stations, and emerging and mature more quickly ... giving larger and sweeter fruits, or a different flavor, color, odor and figure ... and make various plants
rise in soil mixtures seeded ... and have a tree or other plant to become ".103
technological resources to appear the flora and fauna of Bensalem are not random or unpredictable but controlled (" none of this happens by accident, but we know in advance what material or mixture, what kind of creatures emerge ") .104 In language that will sound familiar to readers of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF for its acronym in English), the ultimate goal of Utopia "the knowledge of the causes ... and widening the boundaries of human empire, to make all things possible ".105
Compare, For example, the utopian vision of technological convergence that drives the NSF, nearly four centuries later: "envision the bond of humanity driven by a virtual brain that interconnects the communities of the land in search of intellectual understanding and conquest of nature ".106

The current version of utopia that offers us the support technological convergence with enthusiasm, and support it with a lot of money, governments and industry worldwide. In the U.S., the convergence is commonly referred to as NBIC (acronym derived from the technologies involved: nanotechnology, biotechnology, IT and science cognitive) .107 In Europe, the vision of convergence is known as CTEKS (acronym in English of the "convergence of technologies for the sake of knowledge of European society.")


Nanotechnology-controlling matter through manipulation of atoms, "Biotechnology can converge with life-controlling, manipulating genes, they may converge with computer-controlling through manipulation of data bits," can converge with Cognitive and Neurological Science, which controls the mind manipulating neurons.

"human life expectancy was of only 37 in 1800. Our ability to reschedule this expectation iology dramatically increase once again. But the progress will be much faster. In 15 years we will be adding a year annually for life expectancy. My advice: take care themselves to the old *, for a time, and may perhaps fully experience the wonderful next century. "Ray Kurzweil," reprogramming Biology, Scientific American, July 2006.

(* The health maintenance regimen of Kurzweil is far from being "old." He writes that he takes 250 supplements a day therapeutic injections applied every week is taken, routine blood samples, hair and saliva to monitor their body's levels of nutrients, hormones and collateral metabólicos.1)
In Canada this convergence is called systemic bio-synthesis [BioSystemics Synthesis] .108 Without necessarily share the enthusiasm of the government, civil society arrived in his own name for the convergence of technologies and known as BANG-Bits, Atoms, Neurons, Genes, which are the operational units "NBIC technologies ".109 One of the theoretical claims of this convergence is that it could develop a treatment for Alzheimer's disease. Suppose we discover, after digging through mountains of data, a natural compound that exists in very small quantities in the Amazon can indeed be effective in curing certain neurological disorders. That using recombinant DNA technology, researchers can produce the compound in large quantities. Nanoscale devices that allow the drug (free and produced using information technology and biotech) can be supplied to the damaged neurons in the brain.
Although not all convergence products will require all components of BANG, almost all use one or more technologies enabled or refined through nanotechnology. Other examples of this convergence is the implantation of nanoscale materials to replace bone damaged by arthritis, manipulating the neurons to be able to control the movements of a computer cursor, the cognition install devices that increase the capacity of our brains store and use information.
A pilot project report forecasting science and technology [Science & Technology Foresight Pilot Project], sponsored by the National Research Council of Canada [Canada's National Rsearch Council], identified five characteristics that make BANG technologies particularly consistent in their logic: they are convergent (which means they can be combined with each other but also can be applied across many industries and research disciplines) are fundamental and replicative ("each of these technologies have some ability to reproduce themselves), 110 distributed (because individuals can use them) and are of public interest (which means that all of them "involve many promises, but at the same time can be very disruptive.")

Since the U.S. government-and subsequently the governments of Europe and Canada, considered BANG from point of view of "refined human performance", become crucial debates about the ethical, social and economic human performance refinement and extension of life expectancy.


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Health in the Millennium Development Goals


Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
(Goal 2) Between 1990 and 2015 to reduce by half the proportion of hungry people.
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

(Goal 5) Between 1990 and 2015 to reduce by two thirds the mortality rate of children under five years.



Goal 5: Improve maternal health

(Goal 6): Between 1990 and 2015 to reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio.
Goal 6: Combat HIV / AIDS, malaria and other diseases (Goal 7) By 2015 have ended and begun to reverse the spread of HIV / AIDS.
(Goal 8) By 2015 have ended and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases.

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
(Goal 10) By 2015, reduce the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe water and safe sanitation. (Target 11) Have achieved by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers.

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development
(Meta 17) In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to essential medicines affordable in developing countries.

Adapted from http://www.who.int/mdg/goals/en/
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What role will nano-enabled medicine to cure disease and poverty in the South global?

According to a press release from the Joint Centre for Bioethics at the University of Toronto (March 31, 2005), "Some day soon, in a remote community in the developing world, a health worker will put a drop of blood from a patient in a piece of plastic about the size of a dime. Within minutes you will have the full diagnosis, including common test battery, plus the analysis of infectious diseases such as malaria or HIV / AIDS, hormonal imbalances and even something like cancer. This amazing piece of plastic called lab on a chip and is one of the revolutionary products and processes currently emerging from nanotechnology research with the potential to transform the lives of thousands of millions of the world's most vulnerable ".111
In September 2000, the United Nations adopted eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG, or MDG by its acronym in English) and 18 goals - a "map" to eradicate hunger and poverty and to ensure the health and environmental sustainability, especially of the poorest in the world by 2015. United Nations identifies three MDGs-eight (of 18) goals relate to health care (see Box 3). The "task force on science, technology and innovation" [UN Millennium Project's Task Force on Science, Technology and Innovation], part of the United Nations Millennium Project, sees nanotechnology as an important tool to achieve the ODM.112 Many others - scientists, researchers, entrepreneurs, market analysts and experts in rural development between them, agree that the technologies nanoscale offer the potential to improve global health - including the world desarrollo.113 Proponents believe that nanotechnology could play an important role in remedying the health of the global South, not only live in treating patients with novel vaccines and therapies from the nanoscopic level, but indirectly, easing the conditions that lead to diseases such as unsafe drinking water. Current research in nanoscale source filters and nano-particles that remove water contaminants are frequently cited examples to invoke the potential contributions of nanotechnology to health in the developing world. The ETC Group acknowledges that nanotechnology research and development related to water are potentially significant for the developing world. Access to clean water could be a much greater contribution to global health than any particular medical intervention.
Nanotechnology research related to water and its political and economic context require further study and examine the ETC Group (in a separate report) research and development in nanotechnology related to water. In this report, however, we confine our analysis to the Nanomedicine drugs and devices for detection, diagnosis and treatment of diseases at molecular.
believe that the global health crisis does not stem from a lack of scientific innovation and medical technology: the root of the problem is poverty and inequality. New medical technologies are irrelevant to poor people if they are not accessible or affordable. Scientific innovation is meaningless if marginalized people have no access to treatment or existing technologies. Doctors Without Borders says that pharmaceutical companies pay more attention to obtain patents in developing countries that supply drugs
esenciales.114
As said Rights Commission Intellectual Property, Innovation and Public Health, World Health Organization in April 2006: "The current government policies and strategies of companies, including its financing mechanisms and incentives, in developed and developing countries alike, no have generated sufficient biomedical innovation as it is relevant to most developing countries. New treatments, and even existing ones, are still beyond the reach of those who necesitan.115 For example, one third of the world's population lack regular access to essential medicines. In parts of Africa and Asia this figure rises more than half the
población116
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nanoscale engineering to produce a malaria drug



Designing microbes for produce a malaria drug that is inexpensive is one of the causes celebres of synthetic biology, a convergence of biotechnology and engineering laboratory building systems running specific tasks. Malaria afflicts 300 to 500 million people and kills more than a million annually: (58 percent of malaria cases occur among the poorest 20 percent of the world's population-especially children who live in África.143
With support from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Jay Keasling, professor of chemical engineering at the University of California at Berkeley and director of its center of synthetic biology is building a microbial chemical factory that will manufacture artemisinin, a powerful agent for malaria.
Artemisinin, a natural product extracted from the leaves of a plant known as sweet wormwood or sweet wormwood in various treaties and popular knowledge systems, or Artemisia annua as classification, is an effective treatment against all strains of malaria. The Chinese knew this shrub as a medicinal plant for over 2000 years. Naturally derived artemisinin is scarce. Many experts believe that it is technically possible to grow enough of the sweet wormwood to produce artemisinin to combat malaria everyone mundo.144 suffer in the chemical synthesis of the drug is slow and costosa.145 In 2004, the Berkeley laboratory where he works Keasling, along with innovation company (Amyris) and the Institute for OneWorld Health (nonprofit) received from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation donated $ 43 million for five years to develop a version of artemisinin derived from microbes. Keasling's lab is now designing metabolic pathways designed a yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to produce intermediate products needed in developing the artemisinina.146


The laboratory and produces acid artemisinic, which is one step away from artemisinin itself. According to Keasling, the next step will require chemical wisdom so that the final product will not arrive soon, it may take ten years before that microbes artemisinic acid distils enough to cure malaria at global.147 If researchers require ten years more to achieve what they propose, how this approach may cost artemisinin-based production of synthetic biology? If, finally, design microbes can produce a treatment for malaria, is it accessible or affordable product? The University of California at Berkeley has awarded OneWorld Health and Amyris a royalty-free license to develop treatment against malaria. Keasling says Amyris will produce the drug at cost and the non-profit (One World Health) will execute the work necessary to overcome the regulatory hurdles. Amyris hopes to use the same technology platform to produce other more profitable drugs. According to the company's website: "The team of scientists and engineers Amyris now tries to sell drugs and other goods of high value fine chemicals extracted from the forests and oceans of the world and to develop these compounds in synthetic microbes." 148

<50-80> However, researchers may be trapped in a complex web of intellectual property rights in both processes and products related to the production of artemisinin - which could force them to negotiate royalties and license fees to many patent holders. Recall, for example, the much publicized case of golden rice with added vitamin A that is trying to remedy nutritional deficiencies of the poor South. Even with public funding, in 2000 researchers developed the Golden Rice (encallejonados of some 70 patents in dispute) had to deliver the giant project agrochemical multinational AstraZeneca (now Syngenta). The controversial golden rice market is still pending.

design If microbes can successfully produce a treatment against malaria, will the product accessible and / or affordable?
VivaGel: miniaturization microbicide microbicides The term refers to a range of compounds that are now under development and aims to reduce or prevent transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases when applied topically. Worldwide more than 7 000 women are infected with HIV every day. Some of the people who campaign after the health of women are promoting the development of microbicides because they could put in the hands of women a safe protection, affordable and accesible.149 Microbicides are not commercially available but almost twenty of them being tested in clinical trials. One of vaginal microbicides now being tested in humans, VivaGel (Starpharma), is based on nanoscale molecules called dendrimers, synthetic molecules, three-dimensional branching parts. The active ingredient in VivaGel functions as a "Velcro" molecular (velcro style) which prevents the action of HIV and herpes genital adhering to receptors on the surface of the virus, which prevents the attach to host cells trying infectar.150 VivaGel is a topical microbicide that has the potential to prevent transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases when applied the vagina before sex. In animal studies, the main ingredient of VivaGel also acted as a contraceptive eficaz.151 Market analysts say that if VivaGel can protect against sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy may be a potential competitor to condones.152 VivaGel is the first dendrimer that goes through the process of FDA approval and testing is done today populations in various parts of mundo.153
In 2005, the National Institutes of Public Health was awarded to Starpharma U.S. (based in Melbourne, Australia) the amount of $ 20.3 million to support development in the interests VivaGel of HIV prevention. In April 2006, these same institutions announced they will fund a clinical trial to test the use of VivaGel in the prevention of genital herpes. But ultimately, are they safe, affordable and accessible these vaginal microbicides to those most in need? (Sex workers in Nigeria, which currently apply lemon juice in the vagina in an attempt to protect themselves from contracting HIV, does have access to this protection technology in the near future? 154 Those who are working towards the health of women and suggest that there is a simple technology, low cost (condoms), easy to distribute and store - but condoms are still scarce. For example, in 2003, grants paid the equivalent of one condom per year for every man of reproductive age living in the world
desarrollo.155

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The World Health Organization defines essential medicines as those that meet the priority needs of healthcare poblacional.138 In 1975, the World Health Assembly called on WHO to help Member States to identify and procure essential medicines that would ensure safety, good quality and appropriate to its cost effectiveness.


The first list of WHO essential drugs (now known as EML English, for short, and Castilian as LME), published in 1977, was described as "a peaceful revolution in international public health" .139 The list established the principle that some medicines were more useful than others, and that many essential medicines are often unaffordable for people who need them. Today, most countries maintain national lists of essential drugs. The lists are important because they guide the efforts of the public sector in its pursuit of supply of medicines, and programs that reimburse the cost of medicines donations of medicines and local production of drugs.

the last 29 years, the Non Gub., The nonprofit aid agencies and intergovernmental agencies have widely adopted policies for essential medicines. But from the beginning, the pharmaceutical industry opposed the concept of the LME and considered it an interference against market forces, a threat to private sector operations.

In theory, "is intended to make essential medicines available in the context of existing health systems at all times in adequate amounts, in appropriate dosages and forms, with guaranteed quality at a price the individual and the community can afford ".140 But of course the reality is very different. There is a serious disparity in access to essential medicines even when this "access" is defined in more modest terms: WHO defined access as the percentage of the population that can obtain at least 20 essential drugs, which must be continuously available (and be affordable) in health facilities or drug store, less than an hour's walk from the home of paciente.141 \u200b\u200b

In 1988, WHO published a report on the worldwide drug situation ( The World Drug Situation) where it was estimated that between 1 300 and 2 500 million people had little or no continuous access to the most essential drugs. When 16 years after WHO issued after such report (The World Medicines Situation), the number had hardly changed, but represented a smaller percentage of the population: 30 percent, whereas before it was 37 per ciento.142 Four of the six WHO regions (totaling 183 countries), most countries have little or medium access to essential medicines (
95 percent). For example, of the 35 countries of the Americas, 21 are of little to medium access, while 14 have medium to high.
The following table compares Africa's access to essential medicines as directed by the first WHO global report 1988, and up dated in 2004. According to WHO, 47 percent of Africa's population lacks essential drugs. From 45 countries, 16 show no improvement or deterioration (between the mid-eighties and late nineties), of whom all but one, have a very low access to essential medicines.
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There is a "fundamental mismatch" between human needs and innovation científica.117 The vast majority of commercial drugs is not relevant to tropical diseases. Only one percent of drugs coming to market between 1974 and 2004 was developed specifically for tropical diseases and tuberculosis.118
* Health, poverty and the environment are inextricably linked. According to WHO, unhealthy environments (unsafe water, poor sanitation and other environmental factors) cause nearly one-third of all deaths and diseases in developing countries desarrollo.119 Infectious diarrhea kills 1.8 million people per year, almost all children. 88 percent of the global burden of infectious diarrhea is caused by sanitation, hygiene and water little seguras.120
* The global South accounts for more than 80 percent of the population, but only about 10 percent of drug sales. In 2005, Africa had 1.1 percent of global pharmaceutical market. ( North America, Europe and Japan have 86 percent of that market.) 121
Today, the formal systems of health care are highly dependent on As medical innovation and technology designed primarily to respond to health markets in OECD countries. Research and development of medicine in these countries are based, first and foremost, in pursuit of profits of the pharmaceutical industry, not the needs or the development of human beings. Ninety percent of research and development on health is devoted to conditions affecting only 10 percent of the population. For example, malaria now accounts for 3.1 percent of the global disease burden but only 0.3 percent of investment in research related to health issues and development (268 million dollars). If the malaria research with the average fund other research would receive more than 3 300 million per year-more than 10 times the funding that currently recibe.122 But it would be biased to suggest that the pharmaceutical industry is a engine of innovation related to public health in OECD countries. In recent decades, the pharmaceutical industry has abruptly lost their innovative drive. Often they are the government and university laboratories who conduct innovative research, which then acquire farmacéuticas.123 large firms in the United States at least one third of drugs marketed by big drug companies obtained licenses from universities or small companies biotecnología.124 After decades of mergers and acquisitions, the drug industry is consolidated in the hands of very few and large corporations.


In the last ten years has increased the controversy about the role of monopoly patents on making drugs are unaffordable for poor people, and creating barriers to access to medicine crucial to saving lives . Reaffirmed in Doha safeguards have not come true and are rapidly eroded rich as governments undertake bilateral trade agreements that impose more stringent patent laws beyond the requirements set by the WTO.

In 2004, the 98 most important companies involved in the drugs had combined sales of 415 billion dollars, the top ten absorbed 59 percent of the market global.125 Instead of developing new compounds, the companies make minor modifications existing drugs and take advantage of government policies inspired by the industries, which enable companies to extend the life of drug patents by those who make a profit. For example, the 78 drugs approved by the management agency of U.S. food and medicines, the Food & Drug Administration (FDA) in 2002, only 17 contained new active ingredients, and only seven were classified by the FDA as improvements in medicine existentes.126 The 71 other drugs are drugs "me too", ie, remodeling of older medicines that are no better than other products that are already on the market. (It is as if the companies say: I also want to profit from this product.) Companies are seeking to stop the development of cheaper generics, which often is paying generic manufacturers to delay the sale of the product competitivo.127
Typically, drug companies try to justify their high prices by pointing to the huge costs of research and development unit. In fact, drug companies spend far more on "marketing and administration" than on research, development and manufacturing. The health researcher Marcia Angell estimated marketing costs of major drug companies reached 54 billion dollars in 2001 -30 percent of industry inputs, which are the order of 179 billion dollars. 128 This includes, for example, spending on direct advertising the consumer, the cost of employing 88 000 sales representatives who visit the offices, plus free samples and gifts they give to doctors, advertising in magazines and marketing and promotion disguised as "educational."
In the last ten years has increased the controversy about the role of monopoly patents on making drugs are unaffordable for poor people, and creating barriers to access to medicine crucial to saving vidas.129 In 1994 The creation of the World Trade Organization and its Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights Trade Related Property Rights (TRIPS in Castilian) widely known as TRIPS [Trade Related Intellectual Property] mandate that developing countries take the existing pharmaceutical patents. At the insistence of Southern governments, the Doha Declaration of the WTO, issued in 2001 under the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, reaffirmed the right of governments to use compulsory licensing mechanisms to facilitate access to cheaper medicines through imports or local production, and the need to exempt least developed countries of the concession and entry into effect of pharmaceutical patents until 2016.130
But reaffirmed in Doha safeguards have not come true and erode rapidly as wealthy governments undertake bilateral trade agreements that impose more stringent patent laws beyond the requirements set by the WTO, thus undermining the Doha Declaration. The U.S. government, for example, vigorously promotes bilateral trade agreements or regional forcing poor countries to recognize a regime known as "TRIPS-plus" provisions whose purpose is to extend the patent monopolies of big pharmaceutical companies, which limit the use of compulsory licensing mechanisms and access to generic drugs baratos.131

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The drug to market nano starts at the same time accelerates the dissociation of clinical trials of certain drugs, which are now done in the global South. If one prevents countries from using generic drugs, it creates a real barrier to cleave drugs. Then promotes genocide, because it is one killing people. "Pedro Chequer, head of the national AIDS program in Brazil.
Analysts point out that nanotechnology-enabled drugs that are guaranteed foster and prolong patents exclusive monopoly covering existing drug compounds. According to an analyst industry, "the drug delivery systems enabled with nanotechnology have proven to be a weapon against generic" 132 because new nanoscale reformulation can allow an existing compound to qualify as a New Chemical Entity. "This can increase profitability, expand the collection of a firm's intellectual property and discourage competition during the most valuable medicine," according NanoMarkets.133 In this scenario of "continue with business as usual", innovations medical nanotechnology will probably concentrate more power in the pharmaceutical industry and have little relevance in response to health problems and poverty of marginalized communities.


Companies developing improvements in human performance, with very expensive technology, may seek acceptance by offering them as "therapy" for the benefit of the poor in the developing world. The most likely scenario is that the human performance improvement will increase the disparities between rich and poor, both in the North and the global South. The market introduction of nanomedicines starts at the same time accelerates the dissociation of clinical
tests of certain drugs, which are now done in the South global.134 is ironic that, ultimately, millions of patients in developing countries to access drugs for large companies only when they serve as guinea pigs for new and experimental treatments. For 2010 it is estimated that there will be two million people in India who are applying clinical trials, the vast majority of whom are poor and analfabeta.135

In 2005, the Government of India repealed the requirement that any drug was prove to be safe in tests conducted in the country of origin, before testing in the population of India.136 NanoBiotech News notes that some nano-biotech companies leading the early stages of its clinical trials outside Europe and the United States outside its scope as there are fewer obstacles regulatorios.137 If the trend continues, the global South is the area of \u200b\u200bearly-stage testing of drugs and devices nanomedicines.

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